By Halim Gençoğlu
Yavuz Sultan Selim, also known as Selim I, was the ninth Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1512 to 1520. His reign marked significant military expansions and transformations within the empire. His policies and military campaigns greatly extended Ottoman influence in the Middle East and North Africa. Among the territories that came under Ottoman control during his reign was the Habesh Province, encompassing parts of modern-day Eritrea, Djibouti, and northern Somalia..
Today, the grave of Ozdemir Pasha located in Eritrea is an evidence of Ottoman policy in the region.
The strategic importance of the Red Sea and its surrounding regions necessitated specific policies to manage and secure these newly acquired territories.
Yavuz Sultan Selim Khan, 1512 – 1520
The Red Sea was a crucial artery for trade between the Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Indian Ocean. Controlling the Habesh Province allowed the Ottomans to protect these vital maritime routes. The Portuguese had begun expanding into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century, threatening Ottoman interests. By securing the Habesh Province, the Ottomans aimed to counter Portuguese influence and protect their trade routes.
As the Ottomans positioned themselves as defenders of Islam, control over the Red Sea’s coastal regions allowed them to influence and protect Muslim communities in the area.
Ottoman control over the Habesh Province
Recognizing the strategic importance of the Red Sea coast, Sultan Selim ordered the construction and strengthening of fortresses in key locations such as Suakin and Massawa. These fortifications served as defensive bulwarks against potential Portuguese incursions and safeguarded Ottoman maritime interests.
Sultan Selim bolstered the Ottoman naval presence in the Red Sea. The construction and deployment of warships were prioritized to patrol the waters, protect merchant vessels, and deter Portuguese naval activities. The administrative structure of the Habesh Province was reorganized to ensure efficient governance. Local rulers were often retained under Ottoman suzerainty, provided they acknowledged Ottoman authority and contributed to the defense and administration of the region. Efforts were made to integrate the economy of the Habesh Province with the broader Ottoman economy. This included fostering trade links with other Ottoman territories and promoting the region as a trading hub. The Ottomans also invested in improving local infrastructure to facilitate trade. Sultan Selim’s policies included establishing diplomatic relations with local rulers and other regional powers. This diplomatic approach aimed to create alliances and secure the loyalty of local leaders, thereby stabilizing the region under Ottoman rule.
The Ottomans supported religious institutions and scholars in the Habesh Province to strengthen their influence among the local Muslim population. This included building mosques, madrasas, and other religious institutions. Evliya Celebi mentions a mosque in his famous book Seyahatname, established by Ozdemir Pasha in Ibrim, today located in the Sudan territory.
While Yavuz Sultan Selim’s policies laid the groundwork for Ottoman control over the Habesh Province, the region posed several challenges. The rugged terrain and harsh climate of the region made it difficult to maintain a continuous and effective Ottoman presence. This required significant logistical efforts to sustain military and administrative operations.
Some local rulers and tribes resisted Ottoman control, necessitating ongoing military campaigns and diplomatic efforts to secure their allegiance. The Portuguese continued to pose a significant threat in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The Ottomans had to remain vigilant and proactive in countering Portuguese naval activities.
Yavuz Sultan Selim Khan in Egypt, 1517
One of his most notable achievements of Yavuz Sultan Selim was the conquest of Egypt in 1517, which had profound implications for the Ottoman Empire and the broader Islamic world. Before Yavuz Sultan Selim ascended to the throne, the Ottoman Empire was already a formidable power in the Middle East, but it faced significant challenges from its eastern rivals, particularly the Safavid Empire. Selim’s reign was characterized by his determination to consolidate and expand Ottoman power. After his successful campaigns against the Safavids, which culminated in the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim turned his attention to the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt.
The campaign against the Mamluks
The Mamluk Sultanate, centred in Cairo, was a significant power in the Islamic world. It controlled Egypt, the Levant, and the Hejaz, including the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. However, by the early 16th century, the Mamluks were in decline, weakened by internal strife and unable to effectively counter the rising Ottoman threat. In 1516, Selim launched a campaign against the Mamluks, starting with the Battle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo. The Mamluk Sultan, Qansuh al-Ghawri, was killed, and the Ottomans secured a decisive victory. This battle opened the way for Ottoman control over Syria. Following this victory, Selim continued his advance towards Egypt. The critical Battle of Ridaniya took place on January 22, 1517, near Cairo. Despite strong resistance, the Ottoman forces, utilizing superior military tactics and artillery, defeated the Mamluk army led by Sultan Tuman Bay II.
The conquest of Cairo
After the Battle of Ridaniya, Sultan Selim entered Cairo in triumph. Tuman Bay II attempted to rally resistance but was eventually captured and executed. With his death, the Mamluk Sultanate effectively ceased to exist, and Egypt became an Ottoman province. The conquest of Egypt had several significant consequences for the Ottoman Empire.
For instance, the inclusion of Egypt extended Ottoman control over the entire eastern Mediterranean and provided a strategic base for further expansion into North Africa. Egypt was a wealthy and populous region. Its inclusion brought considerable economic advantages to the Ottoman Empire, including control over the lucrative spice trade routes. By taking control of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, Sultan Selim and his successors could claim the title of Caliph, positioning the Ottoman Sultan as the leader of the Sunni Muslim world. This move significantly enhanced the empire’s religious and political legitimacy. The Ottomans integrated the administrative and cultural practices of the Mamluks, which influenced Ottoman governance. Cairo remained an important cultural and intellectual center within the empire.
The conquest of Egypt marked the zenith of Selim’s short but impactful reign. His military prowess and strategic vision laid the groundwork for the future expansion of the Ottoman Empire under his son, Suleiman the Magnificent. The integration of Egypt solidified the empire’s position as a dominant power in the Middle East and the Islamic world.
Sultan Selim’s conquest also had a lasting impact on Egypt itself. Under Ottoman rule, Egypt experienced significant administrative changes and continued to be a vital economic and cultural hub. The legacy of Selim’s conquest is still evident in the historical and architectural heritage of Egypt today.
The conquest and its impact
Yavuz Sultan Selim’s conquest of Egypt in 1517 was a pivotal moment in Ottoman history. It not only expanded the empire’s territories but also enhanced its economic, political, and religious influence. The successful integration of Egypt into the Ottoman realm demonstrated Selim’s strategic acumen and contributed to the enduring legacy of the Ottoman Empire as a central power in the region.
Despite these challenges, Sultan Selim’s policies had a lasting impact on the region. The establishment of Ottoman control over the Habesh Province ensured the security of the Red Sea trade routes, contributing to the economic prosperity of the empire. Additionally, the integration of the province into the Ottoman administrative and economic system helped to stabilize the region and extend Ottoman influence. From Palestine to Tunisia, this great geographical territory became much more important than the previous times. Undoubtedly, the Ottomans owe this achievement in northern Africa to the strategy of Yavuz Sultan Selim Khan and his significant state policies.
Cover picture: Ottoman map of Africa