By Dr. Halim Gençoğlu
The Ottoman Empire, which spanned from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, is often remembered for its relative tolerance toward religious and ethnic minorities, especially when compared to its contemporaries in Europe. Among the diverse groups that found refuge under Ottoman rule were the Jews, who, for centuries, faced persecution in various parts of Europe. The Ottoman Empire’s treatment of its Jewish population stands as a testament to its unique approach to governance and religious coexistence.
A haven for Jews in the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire’s embrace of Jews traced back to the late 15th century, during the reign of Sultan Bayezid II. In 1492, the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain issued the Alhambra Decree, expelling Jews from Spain. This decree forced tens of thousands of Jews to flee the Iberian Peninsula, seeking refuge in more tolerant lands. Sultan Bayezid II welcomed these Jewish refugees with open arms, recognising the economic and cultural contributions they could bring to the empire. He is often quoted as saying, “How can you call Ferdinand of Aragon a wise king, the same Ferdinand who impoverishes his own land and enriches ours?”
The Jews who settled in the Ottoman Empire were primarily Sephardic Jews, and they brought with them their languages, traditions, and skills. They showed thriving communities in cities like Istanbul, Salonica, and Izmir. These communities enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy under the Ottoman millet system, which allowed religious minorities to govern their own affairs in matters of personal status, education, and religious practice.
Religious autonomy in the Ottoman period
The millet system was a key feature of the Ottoman Empire’s governance, allowing various religious communities to coexist within the broader Muslim-majority empire. Each millet, or religious community, was led by its own religious leader, who acted as an intermediary between the community and the Ottoman authorities. The Jews, like other millets, were allowed to keep their own religious schools, courts, and charitable institutions. This system not only preserved the religious identity of these communities but also fostered a sense of loyalty to the Ottoman state.
The Jewish community, under this system, experienced a level of religious and cultural freedom that was rare in other parts of the world at that time. They were allowed to practice their religion without fear of persecution, and their leaders were respected by the Ottoman authorities. This tolerance extended to other aspects of life as well; Jews were allowed to own property, engage in trade, and serve in various capacities within the empire.
Economic and cultural contributions
The Jewish population in the Ottoman Empire played a significant role in the economic and cultural life of the empire. Many Jews became prominent merchants, artisans, and financiers, contributing to the empire’s prosperity. The Sephardic Jews brought with them knowledge of trade networks that spanned across the Mediterranean and beyond, helping to integrate the Ottoman economy into global trade.
Culturally, the Jews contributed to the vibrant intellectual and artistic life of the empire. Jewish scholars, poets, and philosophers flourished in the tolerant environment of the Ottoman Empire. The Jewish community also played a role in the development of the Ladino language, a Judea-Spanish dialect that became a cornerstone of Sephardic Jewish culture in the empire.
Fast forward to the present, and the relationship between Jews and Muslims is far more complex and fraught with tensions. While the historical legacy of Ottoman tolerance is still remembered, the modern era has seen a significant shift in relations between Jews and Muslims, particularly in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the broader geopolitics of the Middle East.
Israeli occupation in Palestine
One of the most significant sources of tension between Jews and Muslims in the present day is the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israel has occupied land that belongs to Palestinians and has been victimising the indigenous people in the territory since 1948. This decades-long conflict has its roots in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the rise of both Jewish nationalism (Zionism) and Arab nationalism. The establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, following the Holocaust and World War II, was seen as a fulfilment of the Zionist dream of a Jewish homeland. However, it also led to the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs, sparking a conflict that continues to this day.
For many Jews, particularly in Israel and the Jewish diaspora, the State of Israel represents a necessary refuge from centuries of persecution and a fulfilment of a historical and religious promise. However, the ongoing conflict with the Palestinians, who are predominantly Muslim, has created deep-seated animosities. This conflict has fuelled a broader sense of mistrust and hesitancy among some Jews toward Muslims.
At the same time, the experiences of Muslim minorities in Western countries, particularly in Europe and the United States, have paralleled those of Jews in previous centuries. Many Muslim communities face discrimination, xenophobia, and exclusion, leading to a sense of shared experience between Jews and Muslims. However, the ongoing conflicts in the Middle East and the rise of right-wing populism in the West have often pitted these communities against each other, rather than fostering solidarity.
Despite the challenges, there are efforts on both sides to bridge the gap and foster understanding between Jews and Muslims. Interfaith dialogue initiatives, such as those organised by the Abrahamic Faiths Initiative and the Muslim-Jewish Advisory Council, aim to build bridges, and address shared challenges, such as combating hate speech and promoting religious freedom.
In recent years, the Abraham Accords, a series of normalisation agreements between Israel and several Arab countries, have also opened new avenues for cooperation between Jews and Muslims in the Middle East. While these agreements are often driven by strategic and economic considerations, they also hold the potential to reshape Jewish-Muslim relations in the region by fostering people-to-people exchanges and cultural understanding however not really much progress has been achieved so far. Edward Said said that “I was born in Palestine, and my grandparents were too. Imagine, a Jew born in New York goes to Palestine; but I cannot go to my homeland. And now Israel calls me a terrorist…” summarising the ongoing conflict and the general situation in Palestine.
The history of Jewish life in the Ottoman Empire serves as a reminder of a time when religious tolerance and coexistence were possible, even in a world divided by faith. The Ottoman Empire’s relatively inclusive approach allowed Jewish communities to thrive for centuries, contributing to the rich tapestry of Ottoman society.
In contrast, the present-day relationship between Jews and Muslims is marked by tension and mistrust, fuelled by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, geopolitical rivalries, and the rise of extremist ideologies. However, the legacy of Ottoman tolerance offers a hopeful precedent for those who seek to bridge the divide between these two communities.
The path forward will require a renewed commitment to dialogue, understanding, and mutual respect. By drawing on the lessons of the past, Jews and Muslims can work together to overcome the challenges of the present and build a future based on shared values and a common humanity.
Therefore, Turkish minorities, particularly those from former Ottoman territories, often harbour positive sentiments toward the Ottoman Empire for several reasons. These reasons are deeply rooted in historical experiences, cultural connections, and the legacy of the Ottoman Empire’s governance.
As explained above, the Ottoman Empire was known for its relative religious tolerance, especially compared to other empires of the time. The empire governed a vast, multi-ethnic, and multi-religious population through the millet system, which allowed different religious communities (Christians, Jews, and others) to govern their own affairs, including matters of personal law, education, and religious practice. This system provided a degree of autonomy and protection to religious minorities, allowing them to keep their cultural and religious identities.
The Ottoman Empire gave economic opportunities to minorities, particularly in trade, craftsmanship, and administration. Various ethnic and religious groups, including Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, played significant roles in the empire’s economy. The empire’s vast territory and its control over key trade routes allowed these communities to prosper, which created a sense of loyalty and appreciation toward Ottoman rule.
For many minorities, the Ottoman Empire offered protection from external threats and internal conflicts. In regions like the Balkans, where local conflicts and external invasions were common, the Ottoman Empire provided a stable and secure environment. The Ottomans often incorporated local elites into the administrative structure, giving them a stake in the empire’s stability and success.
The Ottoman Empire was known for its ability to integrate diverse peoples into its administrative and military structures. Many minorities found opportunities within the Ottoman system to rise to prominent positions.
The Ottoman Empire was a center of cultural and educational exchange, and many minorities received help from the intellectual and artistic vibrancy of Ottoman cities like Istanbul, Salonica, and Cairo. The empire supported the establishment of religious and educational institutions for various communities, fostering a rich cultural environment where different traditions could flourish.
Nostalgia for the past
In many former Ottoman territories, there is a sense of nostalgia for the Ottoman period, particularly among older generations who remember it as a time of greater unity and peace compared to the conflicts and upheavals that followed the empire’s collapse. This nostalgia is often reinforced by cultural memories, oral traditions, and the preservation of Ottoman-era architecture and monuments.
For some Turkish minorities, particularly those in the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire is seen as a key part of their national identity. For example, many Bosniaks and Albanians view their Islamic faith, which was adopted during the Ottoman period, as a vital part of their identity. The Ottoman Empire is often remembered as the protector of their religious and cultural heritage.
In the national narratives of some post-Ottoman states, the Ottoman period is portrayed positively, especially when compared to subsequent periods of occupation or conflict. This positive portrayal is often tied to the idea of a shared history and the benefits of being part of a powerful and influential empire.
Influence on Modern Türkiye
Modern Türkiye, as the successor state to the Ottoman Empire, has worked to maintain ties with Turkish minorities abroad. The Turkish government’s support for these communities, coupled with the shared cultural and historical connections, strengthens their positive perception of the Ottoman Empire. The sense of kinship with Türkiye, which positions itself as the heir to the Ottoman legacy, reinforces favourable views of the Ottomans among these groups.
The positive sentiments that many Turkish minorities hold toward the Ottoman Empire are rooted in a complex mix of historical, cultural, and socio-political factors. While the Ottoman period was not without its challenges, the empire’s relative tolerance, opportunities for integration, and the stability it provided are often remembered fondly by those who view it as a significant and formative part of their history.
Now, Jews, particularly those who support Israel’s illegal occupation of Palestine and the genocide in Gaza, must revisit their history and reflect on how the Ottomans managed to maintain peace in the region, and consider that they too can do the same.
Note: This article is based on the PhD thesis of Gencoglu, H. (2018), titled *Socio-political Challenges of Marginal Religious Groups: The Sabbatean Sect*. See more below:
https://open.uct.ac.za/items/ca9d2464-d433-4b06-b17f-7d4f873fecb0